In research, "decision" is made based on

A. Must be conducted by qualified scientist: The Nuremberg Code emphasizes that experiments should be carried out only by scientifically qualified individuals. Proper expertise ensures the study is designed and conducted competently, minimizing risks to participants.

B. Must avoid unnecessary physical and mental suffering: Experiments should prevent all unnecessary harm. Only risks essential to achieving scientific objectives may be tolerated, and investigators are obligated to protect participants from avoidable physical or psychological distress.

C. Must have the informed consent of the subject or their legal representative: Voluntary, informed consent is a cornerstone of the Nuremberg Code. Participants must be fully aware of the purpose, procedures, risks, and potential benefits of the research, and must agree to participate without coercion.

D. Is only justified if it benefits only researcher and stakeholders: The Nuremberg Code explicitly rejects this idea. Research is ethically justified only if it aims to benefit society or scientific knowledge, not merely the investigator or other vested interests.

E. Must be based on animal testing and knowledge of the disease being studied: Experiments should be preceded by prior knowledge, including appropriate animal studies, to ensure anticipated results are scientifically valid and to minimize human risk.

F. Must not be conducted if they are likely to cause death or disabling injury: Research that has a high likelihood of causing death or serious injury is strictly prohibited unless the study addresses life-saving interventions under highly controlled circumstances, reflecting the principle of minimizing harm.

A. Measurement Bias: Measurement bias occurs when data collection tools or procedures systematically misrepresent the variable being measured. It affects the accuracy of measurements rather than the representativeness of the sample, so it is not related to the sample’s generalizability.

B. Detection Bias: Detection bias arises when outcome assessment is influenced by knowledge of the intervention or participant characteristics, potentially affecting the objectivity of measurements. It involves differential observation, not sample selection.

C. Reporting Bias: Reporting bias occurs when the dissemination of research findings is influenced by the nature or direction of results, such as selectively publishing significant outcomes. It pertains to publication or communication rather than the initial study sample.

D. Selection Bias: Selection bias occurs when the study sample is not representative of the target population, often due to nonrandom sampling or exclusion of certain groups. This compromises external validity, making study results less generalizable to the broader population.