"The alternative hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument but has not been proved"

A. Beneficence: Beneficence requires researchers to maximize possible benefits while minimizing potential harm to participants. It involves careful risk–benefit analysis, protection from physical and psychological injury, and ongoing monitoring for adverse effects. This principle ensures that participant welfare remains a primary consideration throughout.

B. Justice: Justice refers to fairness in the distribution of the burdens and benefits of research. It requires equitable selection of participants so that vulnerable populations are not exploited and no group is unfairly excluded from potential benefits. This principle guides inclusion criteria and recruitment practices.

C. Respect for person: Respect for persons recognizes the autonomy of individuals and the need to provide additional protections for those with diminished autonomy. It underlies the requirement for informed consent, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw without penalty. This principle safeguards individual decision-making capacity.

D. All of the above: The foundational ethical framework for human subjects research incorporates beneficence, justice, and respect for persons as core principles. Together, they guide ethical study design, participant protection, and responsible conduct of research involving human participants.

A. Must be conducted by qualified scientist: The Nuremberg Code emphasizes that experiments should be carried out only by scientifically qualified individuals. Proper expertise ensures the study is designed and conducted competently, minimizing risks to participants.

B. Must avoid unnecessary physical and mental suffering: Experiments should prevent all unnecessary harm. Only risks essential to achieving scientific objectives may be tolerated, and investigators are obligated to protect participants from avoidable physical or psychological distress.

C. Must have the informed consent of the subject or their legal representative: Voluntary, informed consent is a cornerstone of the Nuremberg Code. Participants must be fully aware of the purpose, procedures, risks, and potential benefits of the research, and must agree to participate without coercion.

D. Is only justified if it benefits only researcher and stakeholders: The Nuremberg Code explicitly rejects this idea. Research is ethically justified only if it aims to benefit society or scientific knowledge, not merely the investigator or other vested interests.

E. Must be based on animal testing and knowledge of the disease being studied: Experiments should be preceded by prior knowledge, including appropriate animal studies, to ensure anticipated results are scientifically valid and to minimize human risk.

F. Must not be conducted if they are likely to cause death or disabling injury: Research that has a high likelihood of causing death or serious injury is strictly prohibited unless the study addresses life-saving interventions under highly controlled circumstances, reflecting the principle of minimizing harm.