Cytokinesis is the process by which a cell pinches into two new cells. What phase of mitosis does this process follow?

Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. Activation energy is the energy barrier that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to proceed, representing the energy required to break bonds in the reactant molecules and initiate the formation of new bonds in the product molecules. Enzymes facilitate chemical reactions by binding to specific substrates (reactant molecules) at their active sites, forming enzyme-substrate complexes. The active site of an enzyme is a region with a specific three-dimensional structure that complements the shape and chemical properties of the substrate, allowing for precise substrate recognition and binding. Once bound to the active site, the enzyme catalyzes the conversion of substrates into products by stabilizing transition states and facilitating bond rearrangements. By providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy, enzymes accelerate the rate of reactions without being consumed or permanently altered in the process. This enables enzymes to catalyze multiple rounds of substrate conversion, making them highly efficient and specific catalysts essential for numerous biological processes.

In a Punnett square, a capital letter represents a dominant allele, while a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele. Dominant alleles are expressed phenotypically when present in one or both copies (heterozygous or homozygous dominant genotype), masking the expression of recessive alleles. Recessive alleles are only expressed phenotypically when present in a homozygous recessive genotype. The use of uppercase and lowercase letters in Punnett squares allows for the prediction of genotypic and phenotypic ratios in offspring resulting from a genetic cross between two individuals with known genotypes. This method helps geneticists understand patterns of inheritance and predict the likelihood of specific traits appearing in offspring.

Photosynthesis, the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, takes place primarily in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in the cells of photosynthetic organisms, where they are responsible for capturing light energy and using it to synthesize organic molecules through the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs light energy from the sun. During photosynthesis, light energy is used to split water molecules (photolysis), releasing oxygen as a byproduct, and generate chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. This energy is then used to drive the synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water in a series of biochemical reactions known as the Calvin cycle. The glucose produced by photosynthesis serves as a source of energy and carbon for the plant and is used to fuel cellular respiration, growth, and reproduction.

Cells require a large surface-to-volume ratio to facilitate efficient exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products with their environment. As cells grow larger, their volume increases more rapidly than their surface area. A large surface-to-volume ratio allows for a greater surface area through which substances can enter and exit the cell, enabling rapid exchange of molecules essential for cellular metabolism. Nutrients such as glucose and oxygen must diffuse into cells, while waste products such as carbon dioxide and metabolic by-products must diffuse out of cells. A large surface-to-volume ratio ensures that cellular processes such as cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis can occur efficiently by providing sufficient surface area for nutrient uptake and waste removal. Additionally, a large surface-to-volume ratio supports cellular communication and signaling by allowing cells to interact with their environment and neighboring cells more effectively.