What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?
Innate immunity is present at birth while adaptive immunity is acquired after exposure to pathogens.
Innate immunity is specific to particular pathogens while adaptive immunity is nonspecific.
Innate immunity is mediated by antibodies while adaptive immunity is mediated by T cells.
Innate immunity provides long-term protection while adaptive immunity provides only short-term protection.
Correct Answer : A
Innate immunity and adaptive immunity are two arms of the immune system that work together to protect the body from pathogens. Innate immunity is the first line of defense and is present at birth. It includes physical and chemical barriers such as the skin, mucous membranes, and antimicrobial peptides, as well as cells such as macrophages and natural killer cells that can quickly recognize and atack pathogens. Innate immunity is nonspecific, meaning it responds to a wide variety of pathogens in a similar way.
Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is acquired after exposure to pathogens. It involves the production of antibodies and activation of T cells, which are specific to particular pathogens. Adaptive immunity takes longer to develop than innate immunity, but it provides a more specific and targeted response to pathogens. Once the adaptive immune system has been activated against a particular pathogen, it can provide long-term protection against future infections with that pathogen.
Option b) is incorrect because innate immunity is nonspecific while adaptive immunity is specific. Option c) is incorrect because antibodies are a part of adaptive immunity while T cells can be a part of both innate and adaptive immunity. Option d) is incorrect because adaptive immunity can provide long-term protection, while innate immunity provides immediate but short-lived protection.
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Correct Answer is C
Explanation
The key structural difference between starch and cellulose lies in the type of glucose monomers they contain:
- Starch is composed of alpha-glucose monomers, which are linked by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
- Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose monomers, which are linked by β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
This difference in the orientation of the glucose molecules leads to different structural properties:
- In starch, the alpha-glucose linkage causes the molecules to form a helical, more easily digestible structure.
- In cellulose, the beta-glucose linkage results in straight, rigid chains that form strong fibers through hydrogen bonding, making it difficult for most organisms to digest.
The other options are incorrect:
- A. Incorrect, as cellulose fibrils do have hydrogen bonds, which contribute to its rigid structure.
- B. Incorrect, as both starch and cellulose are made of glucose, not fructose.
- D. Incorrect, both starch and cellulose contain cyclized glucose monomers, but the orientation differs.
Correct Answer is B
Explanation
Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied into RNA. During transcription, the DNA molecule unwinds and RNA polymerase reads the DNA sequence and synthesizes a complementary RNA molecule using the DNA as a template.
Correct Answer is C
Explanation
Water molecules primarily enter cells through the process of facilitated diffusion, specifically via aquaporins, which are specialized channel proteins that facilitate the rapid transport of water across the cell membrane. This process does not require energy (ATP) as it relies on the concentration gradient of water, allowing water to move from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration.
Here’s why the other options are not correct in the context of water transport:
- A. Gated channels: While aquaporins can be gated, this term generally refers to channels that open and close in response to specific signals, which is not the primary mechanism for water transport in most cells.
- B. Electrochemical gradients: This term relates to the combined effect of electrical and chemical gradients across a membrane, typically for ions rather than water molecules directly. Water movement can be influenced by osmotic gradients but is not solely dependent on electrochemical gradients.
- D. Proton pumps: These are involved in transporting protons (H⁺ ions) across membranes, primarily for establishing an electrochemical gradient, not for the transport of water.
Thus, water molecules enter cells mainly by facilitated diffusion through aquaporins.
Correct Answer is C
Explanation
Vaccines are a type of preventative medicine that work by exposing the individual to a weakened or inactivated form of a pathogen (such as a virus or bacteria) or to a piece of the pathogen (such as a protein or sugar) that triggers an immune response in the body. This exposure allows the body to develop immunity to the pathogen without getting sick from the full-blown disease. Once the immune system has been primed, it can recognize and quickly respond to the pathogen if it is encountered again in the future, providing protection against the disease.
It is a common misconception that vaccines can cause the disease they are designed to protect against. This is not true. While some vaccines may cause mild symptoms such as a low-grade fever or soreness at the injection site, they do not cause the full-blown disease.
Vaccines provide active immunity, meaning that the body produces its own antibodies against the pathogen, rather than receiving pre-made antibodies as in passive immunity. Additionally, vaccines can be effective against both bacterial and viral infections, depending on the specific vaccine.
Correct Answer is A
Explanation
The scientific purpose of retracing the steps of a fatal expedition, such as the 1924 climb of Mount Everest, would primarily be to assess the factors that contributed to the earlier expedition's failure. By analyzing the conditions, decisions made, and circumstances surrounding the previous climb, the mountaineer can gain insights into potential dangers, challenges, and mistakes that were encountered, which can inform current climbing practices and safety measures.
Here's why the other options are less appropriate as primary scientific purposes:
- B. To measure the oxygen levels at high elevation: While measuring oxygen levels can be a scientific goal, it is not the main focus if the intent is to understand the failure of the previous expedition specifically.
- C. To identify routes that can be explored in future climbs: This could be a minor aspect of the climb, but the emphasis is on understanding the past tragedy rather than route exploration.
- D. To show that modern technology makes climbing safer: Although modern technology may improve safety, the primary purpose of the climb, given the context, would be to learn from historical events rather than to prove a point about technology.
Thus, the scientific purpose of such a climb would be to assess why the earlier expedition failed.
Correct Answer is B
Explanation
One of the key differences between skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles is the presence of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle tissue. These discs are specialized structures that facilitate communication and synchronization between cardiac muscle cells, allowing the heart to contract as a unified organ.
The other options are incorrect:
- A. Skeletal muscles are autorhythmic, whereas cardiac muscles are not: This is incorrect because cardiac muscles are autorhythmic; they can generate their own rhythmic contractions. Skeletal muscles require nervous system stimulation to contract.
- C. Skeletal muscles are found in the viscera, whereas cardiac muscles are found in the cranium: This is incorrect; skeletal muscles are primarily associated with the skeleton (attached to bones) and are not typically found in the viscera, while cardiac muscle is found in the heart.
- D. Cardiac muscles are voluntary, whereas skeletal muscles are involuntary: This is incorrect; skeletal muscles are voluntary (under conscious control), while cardiac muscles are involuntary (not under conscious control).
Therefore, the correct distinction is that cardiac muscles contain intercalated discs, while skeletal muscles do not.
Correct Answer is B
Explanation
The mitral valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle of the heart and helps to regulate the flow of blood between these chambers. It consists of two leaflets or flaps that open and close in response to changes in pressure as the heart beats.
During diastole, when the heart is relaxed and filling with blood, the mitral valve opens to allow blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle. During systole, when the heart contracts to pump blood out of the left ventricle and into the systemic circulation, the mitral valve closes to prevent backflow of blood into the left atrium.
The mitral valve is one of four valves in the heart that help to ensure the unidirectional flow of blood through the heart and the rest of the circulatory system. Problems with the mitral valve, such as mitral valve prolapse or mitral stenosis, can lead to a range of symptoms and complications, including shortness of breath, fatigue, chest pain, and heart failure.
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Correct Answer is D
Explanation
A double-blind study is a research design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know which group participants are assigned to. This is done to minimize bias and ensure that the results of the study are as objective as possible. In a double-blind study, the treatment and control groups are randomly assigned, and the participants and researchers are unaware of which group each participant is assigned to. Option a) is an example of a randomized controlled trial, which is a common research design, but it is not necessarily double-blind. Option b) is an example of an open-label study, in which both the participants and the researchers know which group each participant is assigned to. Option c) is an example of a single-blind study, in which the participants do not know which group they are assigned to, but the researchers do.
Correct Answer is B
Explanation
The perineum is the region of the body located between the pubic symphysis (in the front) and the coccyx (in the back). It includes the areas surrounding the openings for the urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems, such as the urethra, anus, and, in females, the vaginal opening.
The other options describe different areas of the body:
- A. The area on the back between the neck and the two shoulder blades refers to the upper back and shoulder region, not the perineum.
- C. The area between the nipples on the chest and the belly button describes the mid-torso, not the perineum.
- D. The area between the edges of the eyes and the chin describes the face, not the perineum.
Correct Answer is C
Explanation
Facial acne is commonly caused by the blockage and inflammation of the sebaceous glands. These glands are responsible for secreting sebum, an oily substance that helps to lubricate the skin and hair. When these glands become overactive, or their ducts are blocked by excess sebum and dead skin cells, it can lead to the formation of pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, which are typical signs of acne.
- Sebaceous glands are found near hair follicles and are primarily responsible for acne when they become clogged.
The other options are not related to acne:
- A. Lacrimal glands: These produce tears and are associated with the eye, not the skin.
- B. Sudoriferous glands: These are sweat glands, which are involved in perspiration, not typically linked to acne.
- D. Ceruminous glands: These are found in the ear canal and produce earwax, not involved in facial skin health.
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