Which factors should be considered to promote longevity? Select all that apply.

A. Removing essential vitamins does not enrich a food; in fact, it reduces its nutritional value. Food processing can result in nutrient losses, but the goal of enrichment is to restore, not remove, those nutrients.

B. Enrichment is the process of adding nutrients back to a food to replace those lost during processing. A common example is enriching white flour with B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid) and iron after milling removes most of the grain’s natural nutrient content. Enrichment ensures that processed foods maintain essential nutrient levels comparable to their original form.

C. Adding nutrients that were not originally present in the food is called fortification, not enrichment. For example, adding vitamin D to milk is fortification.

D. Neutralizing anti-nutrients, such as phytic acid in grains or legumes, improves mineral absorption but is a separate process from enrichment. It does not involve adding back lost nutrients.

A. Vitamin E is present in breast milk at levels generally sufficient for healthy, full-term infants. It functions as an antioxidant, protecting cell membranes from oxidative damage. Deficiency is very rare in breastfed infants unless there is a fat malabsorption disorder or premature birth with very low birth weight, as these conditions limit fat-soluble vitamin absorption. Therefore, routine supplementation is not required for most term infants.

B. Vitamin C is water-soluble and abundant in breast milk when the lactating mother has an adequate diet. It supports collagen formation, immune function, and antioxidant activity. Deficiency in breastfed infants is uncommon unless the mother’s intake is severely inadequate, which is rare in most populations.

C. Calcium is a critical mineral for bone and teeth development, and breast milk generally contains sufficient calcium to meet the needs of full-term infants. The infant’s calcium requirements are met even if maternal intake is moderate because the mammary gland actively regulates calcium content in milk. Deficiency in calcium is therefore not a common concern in healthy, exclusively breastfed infants.

D. Vitamin D is naturally present in breast milk in very low amounts, insufficient to meet the infant’s needs, particularly if sunlight exposure is limited. Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption and bone mineralization. Without supplementation, breastfed infants are at risk for rickets, delayed bone growth, and skeletal deformities. Health organizations, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics, recommend daily vitamin D supplementation (typically 400 IU/day) for all exclusively breastfed infants.