Breakage of glycosidic bonds that form complex carbohydrates is considered

A. boiling water: Boiling water is a physical method of microbial control that kills most vegetative cells and some viruses through denaturation of proteins and disruption of membranes. It does not involve chemical agents, making it a physical means of sterilization or disinfection.

B. pasteurization: Pasteurization is a controlled heating process used to reduce microbial load in liquids such as milk and juice. It uses heat as a physical agent to destroy pathogenic microbes while preserving the quality of the product.

C. HEPA filters: High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters physically remove microorganisms from air by trapping particles. This is a mechanical, physical approach to controlling microbial contamination in healthcare and laboratory environments.

D. ultraviolet radiation: UV radiation damages microbial DNA and prevents replication. It is a physical method of disinfection commonly used on surfaces, air, and water.

E. hydrogen peroxide: Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical disinfectant and antiseptic. It kills microbes through oxidation and production of reactive oxygen species. Since it is chemical rather than physical, it does not belong in the category of physical agents for controlling microbial growth.

A. conjugation: Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct cell-to-cell contact, usually via a pilus. It requires live donor and recipient cells and is not mediated by DNA from a dead cell.

B. mitosis: Mitosis is the process of eukaryotic cell division, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells. It does not involve horizontal gene transfer or the uptake of DNA from other cells.

C. transmission: Transmission is a general term for the spread of organisms or genetic material but does not specifically describe the process in which a dead cell’s DNA is incorporated into a living recipient cell.

D. transformation: Transformation is the process by which a competent bacterial cell takes up DNA fragments from a dead or lysed cell in its environment. This exogenous DNA can be incorporated into the recipient’s genome, resulting in a genetically altered cell, a mechanism first described in Streptococcus pneumoniae by Griffith.

E. transduction: Transduction is the transfer of bacterial DNA from one cell to another via bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Unlike transformation, it requires a viral vector rather than direct uptake of free DNA from a dead cell.