What manifestations of local inflammation occur when a person sprains their ankle? Select all that apply.

Rationale:

A. Decreased antibody production is primarily associated with cortisol, a glucocorticoid, not aldosterone. Aldosterone’s main role is electrolyte and fluid balance, not direct modulation of adaptive immunity.

B. Bronchodilation is mainly influenced by catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during the stress response. Aldosterone does not directly cause bronchodilation.

C. Impaired wound healing is also largely due to glucocorticoids like cortisol, which suppress immune function and fibroblast activity. Aldosterone itself does not significantly impair tissue repair.

D. Aldosterone indirectly contributes to modulation of the inflammatory response. By increasing sodium and water retention and affecting vascular function, aldosterone can reduce tissue edema and inflammatory mediator accumulation. This effect is less pronounced than cortisol but still relevant during the stress response.

E. This is the primary and most significant effect of aldosterone. Aldosterone acts on the renal distal tubules and collecting ducts to increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, which helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure during stress. This effect is critical for the body’s hemodynamic stability under stressful conditions.

Rationale:

A. The proliferation phase, also called the repair phase, occurs after the inflammatory phase and is characterized by new tissue formation. Fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells migrate into the wound bed, producing granulation tissue, which is pink or red, moist, and rich in new capillaries. Granulation tissue fills the wound and serves as the foundation for tissue regeneration and eventual closure.

B. Collagen deposition and scar formation are primary features of the maturation or remodeling phase, which occurs after proliferation. While collagen production begins during proliferation, the organized scar tissue forms later as the wound strengthens and matures.

C. Platelet aggregation and clot formation occur during the hemostasis phase, which is the very first step in wound healing. This phase occurs immediately after injury, before the inflammatory and proliferative phases.

D. Debridement by macrophages is part of the inflammatory phase, which precedes proliferation. Macrophages phagocytose pathogens, dead cells, and debris, preparing the wound bed for granulation tissue formation.