Mothers who took the drug thalidomide during their pregnancy most often had babies who were born with which of the following characteristics?

A. Habituation: Habituation is decreased response after repeated exposure, not a reward/punishment behavior-management system.
B. Modeling: Modeling (observational learning) involves learning by watching others; giving treats/time-outs is direct contingency-based management, not modeling.
C. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning pairs stimuli to elicit reflexive responses; treats/time-outs operate on consequences, not stimulus pairing.
D. Operant conditioning: providing treats for appropriate behavior (reinforcement) and time-outs for misbehavior (punishment/negative punishment) are textbook examples of operant conditioning.
E. Social learning theory: Social learning includes modeling and vicarious reinforcement; although related, the direct use of rewards/punishments is specifically operant conditioning.

A. Overregularization: Applying regular grammatical rules (-ed) to an irregular past-tense verb (“goed” instead of “went”) is classic overregularization.
B. Overextension: Overextension is using a word too broadly (e.g., calling all animals “doggie”); Jonah’s error is morphological, not lexical over-broadening.
C. Underextension: Underextension is using a word too narrowly (e.g., using “dog” only for the family pet), not relevant here.
D. Fast mapping: Fast mapping is rapid initial word-meaning acquisition after limited exposure; Jonah’s utterance shows rule application, not initial word learning.
E. Syntactic bootstrapping: Syntactic bootstrapping is inferring word meaning from sentence structure; Jonah’s mistake is a morphological error, not use of syntax to infer meaning.