A nurse is assisting with teaching a class about Freud's psychosexual stages. The nurse should reinforce that fixation at the oral stage of development can lead to which of the following conditions?

Choice A reason : Trust vs. Mistrust.The stage of Trust vs. Mistrust is the first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to approximately 18 months of age. In this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate. This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Choice B reason : Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.The stage of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt is the second stage of Erikson's theory, spanning the toddler years from 18 months to three years. In this stage, toddlers begin to assert their independence by making choices and taking control over their actions. Success in this stage leads to feelings of autonomy, while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. However, this stage is not applicable to the scenario described, as it involves an infant, not a toddler.

Choice C reason : Identity vs. Role Confusion.Identity vs. Role Confusion is the fifth stage, occurring during the teen years from 12 to 18. This stage is characterized by the exploration of personal identity and the development of a sense of self. The scenario provided does not pertain to an adolescent, so this stage is not relevant to the infant's experience.

Choice D reason : Integrity vs. Despair.The stage of Integrity vs. Despair is the eighth and final stage of Erikson's theory, occurring in older adulthood from 65 to death. This stage involves reflecting on one's life and either concluding it with a sense of integrity and fulfillment or with a sense of despair over a life misspent. This stage is not applicable to the infant described in the scenario.

Choice A reason : Continue to talk to the client as if they are awake.Even when a client is unresponsive, they may still be able to hear and benefit from hearing a familiar voice. Continuing to talk to the client can provide comfort and reassurance during the end-of-life stage⁷.

Choice B reason : Whisper when talking in the client's room.Whispering can create a sense of secrecy and exclusion. It is important to communicate in a normal tone, respecting the client's presence and dignity⁷.

Choice C reason : Limit the client's visitors to one at a time.Limiting visitors can be appropriate in certain situations to maintain a calm environment; however, it should be based on the client's wishes and needs, not as a general practice⁷.

Choice D reason : Avoid touching the client.Appropriate touch can be comforting to an unresponsive client, conveying care and presence. It should not be avoided unless there is a specific reason to do so, such as pain or discomfort⁷.