Many of the clinical manifestations for acute stress are attributed to activation of the sympathetic nervous system and are mediated by:

Choice A Reason:

The prodromal stage refers to the period during which early symptoms of a disease appear but are not yet specific or severe. This stage is often associated with infectious diseases where initial symptoms like fever, malaise, and fatigue occur before more specific symptoms develop. In the context of HIV, the prodromal stage would not be applicable as it refers to the early symptomatic phase rather than a period without symptoms.

Choice B Reason:

Remission is a term used to describe a period during which the symptoms of a disease are reduced or disappear. This term is commonly used in the context of chronic diseases such as cancer or autoimmune disorders. For HIV, remission would imply a reduction in viral load and symptoms due to effective treatment, but it does not describe the asymptomatic phase following initial exposure.

Choice C Reason:

Exacerbation refers to the worsening or flare-up of symptoms in a chronic disease. This term is often used in conditions like asthma or multiple sclerosis where symptoms can become more severe periodically. In the context of HIV, exacerbation would describe periods where symptoms become more pronounced, not the asymptomatic phase after initial exposure.

Choice D Reason:

The latent stage, also known as the clinical latency stage or asymptomatic HIV infection, is the period after initial HIV exposure when the virus is present in the body but not causing any symptoms. During this stage, HIV continues to replicate at low levels, and the individual may not feel sick or show any signs of the disease. This stage can last for several years, especially with effective antiretroviral therapy.

Choice A: Hypoventilation

Hypoventilation refers to inadequate ventilation that leads to an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood, resulting in respiratory acidosis. This condition is characterized by a decrease in blood pH due to the accumulation of CO2, which forms carbonic acid. Hypoventilation does not cause metabolic acidosis, as it primarily affects the respiratory component of acid-base balance.

Choice B: Massive Blood Transfusion

Massive blood transfusion can lead to metabolic alkalosis rather than metabolic acidosis. This is because stored blood products often contain citrate, which is metabolized to bicarbonate in the liver, increasing the blood’s alkalinity. Additionally, the transfusion of large volumes of blood can dilute the plasma bicarbonate concentration, but this typically does not result in metabolic acidosis.

Choice C: Kidney Failure

Kidney failure is a common cause of metabolic acidosis. The kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions (H+) and reabsorbing bicarbonate (HCO3-). When the kidneys fail, they are unable to remove sufficient acids from the blood, leading to an accumulation of metabolic acids and a decrease in blood pH. This condition is known as metabolic acidosis and can result from chronic kidney disease (CKD) or acute kidney injury (AKI).

Choice D: Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation leads to respiratory alkalosis, not metabolic acidosis. This condition occurs when there is excessive ventilation, causing a decrease in CO2 levels in the blood and an increase in blood pH. Hyperventilation reduces the concentration of carbonic acid, leading to an alkaline state. It does not contribute to metabolic acidosis, which involves an imbalance in the metabolic components of acid-base regulation.