All of the following are first generation antipsychotics except,

A. Gabapentin is an anticonvulsant and neuropathic pain medication that has no role in treating enuresis. It works by modulating calcium channels and is primarily used for seizures, neuropathic pain, and restless leg syndrome.

B. Laxatives. While constipation can contribute to enuresis by exerting pressure on the bladder, laxatives do not directly treat bedwetting. Instead, addressing constipation may help reduce nocturnal enuresis in some cases.

C. Desmopressin (DDAVP) is the first-line pharmacologic treatment for enuresis. It is a synthetic analog of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) that reduces night-time urine production, making it effective for nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) in children.

D. SSRIs. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used for depression, anxiety, and OCD but have no primary role in enuresis treatment. In some cases, they may actually cause urinary retention or incontinence as a side effect rather than improving enuresis.

A. Mesolimbic pathway is associated with reward, motivation, and emotions and is hyperactive in schizophrenia, leading to positive symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. Antipsychotic medications work by blocking dopamine (D2) receptors in this pathway, reducing psychotic symptoms.

B. Nigrostriatal pathway controls motor function and coordination. Dopamine blockade in this pathway leads to extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) such as tremors, rigidity, and tardive dyskinesia, which are common side effects of first-generation antipsychotics (typical antipsychotics).

C. Tuberoinfundibular pathway regulates prolactin secretion. Dopamine inhibits prolactin release, so blocking D2 receptors with antipsychotics leads to increased prolactin levels, causing gynecomastia, galactorrhea, and menstrual irregularities.

D. Mesocortical pathway is responsible for cognition, motivation, and emotional regulation. In schizophrenia, this pathway is hypoactive, contributing to negative symptoms such as apathy, social withdrawal, and cognitive impairment.