Which are the early (prodromal) clinical manifestations of hepatitis. (Select all that apply).

A. Diverticulitis: This condition involves inflammation or infection of diverticula (small pouches) in the colon wall, typically presenting with localized pain and not characterized by “cobblestone” appearance or skipped lesions seen on colonoscopy.

B. Crohn's Disease: The description of “cobblestone” mucosa, skipped lesions, and thickened bowel walls resembling “lead pipes” are classic features of Crohn’s disease. It can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract and presents with patchy, transmural inflammation causing thickening and characteristic endoscopic findings.

C. Diverticulosis: This condition involves the presence of diverticula without inflammation. It does not cause the cobblestone or skipped lesion appearance seen in inflammatory bowel disease and is generally asymptomatic unless complicated by diverticulitis.

D. Ulcerative Colitis: This disease causes continuous inflammation usually starting in the rectum and extending proximally, leading to a loss of haustral markings but does not typically present with skipped lesions or a cobblestone appearance. The colon wall tends to be thin rather than thickened.

A. Azotemia: Azotemia, or elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, is a common feature of glomerulonephritis due to reduced kidney filtration capacity and accumulation of nitrogenous wastes in the blood.

B. Hematuria with red cell casts: Hematuria with red blood cell casts is a classic hallmark of glomerulonephritis, indicating glomerular bleeding and inflammation. These casts are formed in the nephron and reflect active glomerular injury.

C. Oliguria and hypertension: Both are characteristic findings in glomerulonephritis. Oliguria results from impaired filtration, while hypertension develops due to fluid retention and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

D. An increased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of >100: Glomerulonephritis typically leads to a decreased GFR, not an increase. Inflammation and damage to the glomeruli impair the kidneys' ability to filter blood effectively, resulting in reduced GFR and waste accumulation.