Autonomic dysreflexia is characterized by:

Choice A reason: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung disease characterized by airflow obstruction and is typically caused by long-term exposure to irritants such as cigarette smoke. While COPD can lead to pulmonary hypertension as a complication, it is not caused by chronic pulmonary hypertension. Therefore, chronic pulmonary hypertension does not directly cause COPD.

Choice B reason: Respiratory acidosis occurs when the lungs cannot remove enough carbon dioxide from the body, leading to a decrease in blood pH. While it can be associated with various respiratory conditions, it is not a direct complication of chronic pulmonary hypertension. Chronic pulmonary hypertension primarily affects the pressure within the pulmonary arteries and the right side of the heart rather than directly causing respiratory acidosis.

Choice C reason: Pulmonary emboli are blood clots that travel to the lungs and can cause sudden obstruction of the pulmonary arteries. While pulmonary emboli can lead to acute pulmonary hypertension, they are not typically caused by chronic pulmonary hypertension. Chronic pulmonary hypertension is usually a result of long-term conditions affecting the pulmonary vasculature, whereas pulmonary emboli are acute events.

Choice D reason: Right heart failure, also known as Cor Pulmonale, is a direct complication of chronic pulmonary hypertension. Chronic pulmonary hypertension increases the pressure in the pulmonary arteries, causing the right side of the heart to work harder to pump blood through the lungs. Over time, this increased workload can lead to right ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the heart muscle) and eventual failure. Cor Pulmonale is a significant consequence of chronic pulmonary hypertension and can lead to symptoms such as edema, ascites, and fatigue.

Choice A reason: Autosomal-recessive disorders affect both males and females equally because the gene in question is located on one of the autosomes (non-sex chromosomes). Each individual has two copies of each autosomal gene, one from each parent. An autosomal-recessive disorder manifests when an individual inherits two copies of a mutant gene, one from each parent. Therefore, gender does not influence the likelihood of being affected.

Choice B reason: Autosomal-dominant disorders also affect both males and females equally. These disorders occur when a single copy of a mutant gene on an autosome is sufficient to cause the disorder. Since autosomes are present in both males and females equally, the likelihood of inheriting an autosomal-dominant disorder is not influenced by gender.

Choice C reason: Chromosomal nondisjunction refers to errors in cell division that result in an abnormal number of chromosomes. While some conditions resulting from chromosomal nondisjunction can show gender bias (such as Turner syndrome affecting females and Klinefelter syndrome affecting males), it is not accurate to say that males are generally more likely than females to be affected by chromosomal nondisjunction.

Choice D reason: X-linked (sex-linked) disorders are more likely to affect males than females because the gene causing the disorder is located on the X chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY), while females have two X chromosomes (XX). If a male inherits a mutant gene on the X chromosome, he will express the disorder because he does not have a second X chromosome to mask the effect. In contrast, females would need two copies of the mutant gene (one on each X chromosome) to express the disorder, making it less likely for them to be affected.